Overall, 11.4 percent of working women are union members, compared with 16.1 percent of male workers. While the number of women union members has risen from 5.9 million in 1983 to 6.5 million in 1999 (a10.5 percent increase), women still are under-represented in unions. Women make up 40 percent of union membership, but they account for 48 percent of the total workforce.

Women's under representation in unions is partly due to their over representation in part-time jobs and nonstandard work arrangements, such as contingent work, that are characterized by low union coverage.

Like minorities, women have much to gain from union membership. Collective bargaining can win fair treatment on the job, and the union wage advantage narrows the historic pay gap between men and women.